A verb is a word that shows an action, occurrence, or a state of being.

 

Action: We go. Occurrence: I become. State of being: I am.

• Auxiliary verbs (can, could, may, must, will, etc.) are combined with main verbs to make verb phrases.

I must go to the library right now.

[divider top=”0″]

A noun refers to a person (mother), place (park), thing (building), or idea (sadness). A proper noun refers to a specific person (Jane), place (Chicago), thing (Senate), or idea (Catholicism).

• A collective noun refers to groups of people, places, things, or ideas, but is treated as if it is singular.

The flock of birds flew above me.

The team was not happy about the loss. (Even though there is more than one person on the team, we treat it like it is singular).

• Most nouns can be made plural by adding s or es to the end of the singular noun. There are irregular nouns, however, that use different letters to make them plural (woman-women, alumnus-alumni, mouse-mice). A list of irregular verbs is included in the appendix.

The woman chose one puppy, but I decided to choose two puppies.

[divider top=”1″]

A pronoun is a word that replaces or stands in place of a noun in a sentence. We use pronouns to avoid repeating nouns and to express them in a shorter form. The noun that the pronoun replaces is called the antecedent.

• A pronoun is a word that replaces or stands in place of a noun in a sentence. We use pronouns to avoid repeating nouns and to express them in a shorter form. The noun that the pronoun replaces is called the antecedent.

Due to Nancy’s passion for learning, she (Nancy) chose to go to college.

• A possessive pronoun indicates ownership of something (mine, yours, hers, theirs, its, ours, etc.).

I asked her to give me back my pen, but she told me that it was hers.

• A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of the sentence or the clause that it is a part of. It always ends in self or selves.

The teenagers mocked themselves (the teenagers) in a parody of their class.

• An intensive pronoun appears in the same form as a reflexive pronoun, but is used to give emphasis to the antecedent.

I went to the concert myself (emphasizing I).

• An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific noun in particular; rather, it conveys the idea of a quantity (some, all, none) or a random person or thing (somebody, anybody). It refers to identifiable things.

We outlined everything in our plan, but everyone still seemed confused.

• A demonstrative pronoun identifies a specific noun to which it is referring (this, that, these, those).

This (my house) is my house and these (my flowers) are my flowers.

• An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions (who, what, which).

What is the cause of the problem?

• A relative pronoun introduces dependent clauses and relates the dependent clause to the rest of the sentence (who, which, that, what, whoever). Note: An explanation of that vs. which is under the section Components of a Sentence.

Jamie read a book that related to music.

• A reciprocal pronoun describes the individual parts of the plural noun antecedent (each other, one another, etc.).

The countries found it difficult to come to an agreement because they did not trust each other (the countries).

[divider top=”1″]

An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or pronoun. It can do this through identifying, quantifying, describing, or comparing the noun or pronoun.

Describe: My black Mini Cooper is faster than the Batmobile.

Identify: That Batmobile needs a better engine.

Quantify: There are several other cars that are faster than the Batmobile.

Comparison: The Batmobile is the slowest car in Chicago.

• A proper adjective stems from or modifies proper nouns and is capitalized (Irish, American, etc.).

The Freudian perspective was applied to our analysis.

An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and entire clauses. Some, but not all, adverbs end in the letters ly. Conjunctive adverbs modify an entire clause and relate it to a previous clause (therefore, however, likewise, etc.).

Verb: I frequently attend lectures given on World War II.

Adjective: Sarah had an oddly enjoyable experience at the circus.

Adverb: They very quickly realized that they were not alone in the cave.

Clause: Consequently, my car was towed and I had to pay a serious fine.

[divider top=”1″]

A preposition is a word that expresses a relationship between a noun or a pronoun, and other words in a sentence. It can describe space, time, etc.

• Common Prepositions

About	Behind	During	Near	Through
Above	Below	Except	Of	To
Across	Beneath	For	Off	Toward
After	Beside	From	On	Under
Against	Between	In	Out	Until
Around	Beyond	Inside	Outside	Up
At	By	Into	Over	Upon
Before	Down	Like	Since	With

• A compound preposition is made up of more than one word. Here are some common examples of compound prepositions:

According to	By way of	In addition to	In spite of	On account of
As well as	Due to	In front of	Instead of	Out of
Because of	Except for	In place of	Next to	With regard to

[divider top=”1″]

A conjunction is a word that connects other words or groups of words together.

• A coordinating conjunction joins equivalent structures. For example, it joins a noun to a noun, or a verb to a verb, etc. The seven coordinating conjunctions are (FANBOYS) for, and, nor, but, or yet, and so.

I asked my professor for an extension, but he said that watching television was not a good reason for needing one.

• A correlative conjunction joins two elements, and the conjunctions come in groups of two (both…and, either…or, whether…or, etc.).

Neither my muscles nor my good looks helped me to get the job.

• A subordinating conjunction can identify the relationship between the adverb clause and another clause (after, as, because, even though, if, since, so that, though, until, while, etc.).

I desperately searched my garden for my dog while my mom called out his name.

• A conjunctive adverb connects independent clauses and often acts as a transitional expression (also, anyway, besides, indeed, otherwise, similarly, therefore, thus, etc.). They are considered to be both adverbs and conjunctions because they both modify and connect clauses. If a conjunctive adverb connects two independent clauses, a semicolon or period must be used to separate them.

Chicagoans love mustard on their hot dogs; however, I think mustard is rancid.

[divider top=”1″]

An article can be classified as an adjective, as it describes the noun that follows it. There are two main categories of articles. The first type is the definite article (the). The definite article refers to a specific thing. The second type of article is the indefinite article (a/an). This article refers to an unspecific thing.

• The indefinite article has two forms, a or an. The indefinite article is used when referring to one of many things, without it being something specific. It is usually used with count and noncount nouns.

Can I have a book? (The indefinite article a refers to one book, but not a specific book).

• The definite article has one form, the. The definite article is used when referring to a specific thing. It is usually a thing that the reader is aware of or that has already been referred to. The definite article can only refer to count nouns.

Can I have the book? (The definite article the refers to a specific book).

• The zero article refers to situations where no article is necessary before a noun. This is the case when you are making generalizations about noncount or plural count nouns.

People have difficulty understanding that taxes are necessary. (The word “people” is both a noncount and a count noun, but is being used as a noncount noun here. The noun “taxes” refers to taxes in general, without specifying any kind of tax).

Articles can be a difficult area to deal with because they are so subjective. There are a few rules, however, which can help you to navigate through the maze that is articles! Here are some helpful hints when dealing with articles:

A versus an:

• A is used before most words that begin with a consonant (exceptions are the next point).

– A horse, a monkey, a school

• The exception to this rule is that we use an before a silent h.

–An honest mistake, an honor

• An is used before most words that begin with vowels (exceptions are listed after this).

–An animal, an island, an egg

• The exceptions are when the letter u makes the same sound as the y in you, and when the letter o makes the same sound as the w in won.

–A university, a unicorn, and a one-horned, etc.

The definite article should be used:

• When referring to something that there is only one of in existence.

The Pope visited a number of countries during the year. (There is only one Pope, and we are not referring to a specific country, so we use “a”).

• When referring to geographic places (except when the place has a modifier in front of it and when it is a country).

The park seemed like the best place for us to go, but they chose to go to the beach.

• When referring to pluralized proper nouns.

The Dells in Wisconsin is a great place for families to visit.

• When referring to oceans or seas (if they are proper nouns).

I would love to swim in the sea; especially the Red Sea.

The zero article is used:

• When referring to languages, sports, and academic subjects.

I speak fluent French, play soccer, and study history.

• When referring to seasons, diseases (although some can take articles), institutions, meals, and times of day.

In autumn, I go to class at night and eat my dinner beforehand.

• When referring to countries, states, counties, provinces, lakes, and mountains unless it is describing a group or collections of countries or states (the United States, the E.U.).

I am going to France, Italy, and Germany.

• When referring to something abstract (a concept or feeling).

I hope for peace in my neighborhood.

There is so much injustice in this city.

Exception: I feel the love in this room. (While “love” is abstract here, we are referring to the specific love present in the room).

 Source: St. Martin’s Handbook, 5th and 6th editions

A sentence consists of a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

• The subject of a sentence identifies what or whom the sentence is about. The direct object of a sentence is the receiver of the action within the sentence. The indirect object of a sentence identifies to/for/about whom the action is being completed. Here are a few sentences with these parts identified.

Josh decided that we should go to the park.

I drove my car yesterday.

Sarah showed me her paper.

• A simple subject is made up of one or more nouns or pronouns.

The Writing Center is located on both campuses.

• A complete subject is made up of the simple subject, as well as its modifiers.

Located on both campuses, the Writing Center is a free service.

• A compound subject is made up of two or more simple subjects joined with some kind of conjunction.

Soccer and basketball are two of the main sports at DePaul University.

• Keep in mind that in imperative sentences, which give commands, the subject (you) may not be present, but is implied.

Show me the money!

• A predicate is a word, or a group of words, which refers to the subject in that it tells the subject to do something or explains something about the subject.

[divider top=”1″]

A phrase is a group of words, acting together, which does not include a subject or a verb or both. They are used in sentences to add information and there are different types of phrases.

• A noun phrase is composed of a noun and all the words that modify it. This phrase can function as a subject, object, or complement in a sentence.

I think that green eggs and ham are delicious.

• A verb phrase is composed of a main verb and all its auxiliary verbs. This phrase can function only as a predicate.

The Writing Center will continue not to edit papers.

• A prepositional phrase is composed of a preposition, its object (a noun or pronoun), and any additional modifiers of the object. This phrase can function as an adjective, adverb, or a noun.

Adverb: After much consideration, I decided to change my profession.

Adjective: My cousin lives in Canada and has told me that it is a great place to live.

Noun: The letter i received is from Mary.

• A verbal phrase is a group of words, containing verb forms, which does not function as a verb but as a noun, adjective, or adverb. They have three forms: participle, gerund, and infinitive.

1. Participle: This verbal acts like an adjective in a sentence. There are two forms of the participle: the present participle (usually ending in ing) and the past participle (usually ending in ed). There can be irregular past participles, so these may have to be looked up in a dictionary. Participle phrases include a participle and its modifiers.

I devoured the sprinkled donuts before anyone could take any.

The car passed by and caught the attention of the wandering man.

2. Gerund: This verbal is formed in the same way as a participle, but acts like a noun instead of an adjective.

Keeping her hands steady was an impossible task.

They discovered a hidden passage under the bridge.

3. Infinitive: This verbal consists of an infinitive and its modifiers. It can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

Sarah would like to climb Mt. Everest next year.

To begin the baking process, you must turn on the oven.

• An absolute phrase is composed of a noun or pronoun and a participle. This phrase modifies the entire sentence and can be set off with commas.

The boat set sail, drifting towards the horizon.

Having nowhere else to go, I walked home.

• An appositive phrase is a type of noun phrase that rephrases or adds detail to a noun that comes before it. This phrase is also usually set off with commas.

When I arrived at the house, a sprawling mansion, I felt I should have chosen a more formal outfit.

[divider top=”1″]

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. There are two main types of clauses, the independent clause and the dependent clause.

• The independent clause can stand alone as a complete thought or sentence.

As I am going to the store, I will pick up some bread.

• The dependent clause cannot stand alone even thought it has a subject and a predicate because it has a dependent word (because, while, as, etc.), which ties it to the rest of the sentence.

As I am going to the store, I will pick up some bread.

• A restrictive clause restricts or limits the meaning of the preceding subject of a sentence. This means that the clause should not be set off with commas because it is so closely related to the preceding subject.

People who participate in the program will be able to receive credit for their work.

• A nonrestrictive clause does not limit the meaning of the preceding subject, but adds meaning to or information about the preceding subject. This clause does not influence the subject’s meaning so it can be set off with commas.

Source: St. Martin’s Handbook, 5th and 6th editions

Fragments and Run-ons

A sentence fragment is created when a phrase (a group of words that lacks a subject and/or verb) is treated as a complete sentence.

• A clause that begins with a subordinating word (after, If, because, although, when, whether, since, though, unless, etc.) must be connected to an independent clause.

Fragment: I went to bed. After I walked the dog. “After I walked the dog” cannot function as a sentence on its own because it is dependent; in other words, it depends upon another clause to complete it.

Complete: After I walked the dog, I went to bed. ORI went to bed after I walked the dog.

• In order to be complete, a sentence must have a verb. Non-finite forms alone cannot make a sentence complete. (Non-finite refers to a verb that functions as an adjective, noun, or adverb).

Fragment: Ordering the pizza. “Ordering the pizza” is a noun phrase. As such, this phrase is missing an action (i.e. a main verb).

Complete: Ordering the pizza is David’s job.

A run-on or fused sentence is created when two independent clauses are joined without proper punctuation or a connecting word.

• Solution A – separating clauses into two sentences

Run-on: I see what you are saying this is beginning to make sense.

Correction: I see what you are saying. This is beginning to make sense.

• Solution B – using a comma + a coordinating conjunction

Run-on: Water color works well I prefer using pastels.

Correction: Water color works well, but I prefer using pastels.

• Solution C – using a semicolon.

Run-on: This building is getting old it’s time we found a new one.

Correction: This building is getting old; it’s time we found a new one.

Transition words alone cannot link two independent clauses. Any of the three options above can work to correct a run-on created by a transition word:

Run-on: I easily climbed the summit of Mt. Hood, however getting down was a different story.

Correction: I easily climbed the summit of Mt. Hood. However, getting down was a different story. OR I easily climbed the summit of Mt. Hood; however, getting down was a different story.

[divider top=”1″]

Using Modifiers

A dangling modifier refers to a phrase or group of words that are not clearly modifying anything in the sentence.

Dangling modifier: Managing a store, life has been more stable for Lucy and her family. This is an issue of clarity: who is managing the store? The reader can speculate and infer, but the meaning is unclear.

Correction: Since Lucy became the manager of a store, life has been more stable for her and her family.

A disruptive modifier refers to a phrase that interrupts the flow of a sentence.

Disruptive modifier: The crayons, because they were left out on the table, were stolen.

Correction: The crayons were stolen because they were left out on the table. OR Because they were left out on the table, the crayons were stolen.

A misplaced modifier refers to a phrase or word that creates ambiguity because of its distance from the thing(s) it modifies in a sentence.

Misplaced modifier: I probably lost my bike that is usually next to my garage in the woods. This sentence is unclear because it could be the bike that is in the woods or the garage could be in the woods.

Correction: I probably lost my bike in the woods. It was next to my garage. OR I probably lost my bike, that was next to my garage, in the woods.

[divider top=”1″]

Who vs. Whom

It may be difficult to tell when you should use who and when you should use whom, but there are some simple rules that can help you make this decision easily.

• The word who is used when in is the subject of a clause. There is a simple test that you can use to determine whether to use who. If you can phrase the who clause in a question form and then answer the question with a subjective pronoun (I, he, she, they, etc.) then you should use who.

I talked to a girl who/whom goes to school at DePaul.

Who goes to DePaul? She does. (You should use who).

• The word whom is used when it is the object of a clause. The simple test for using whom follows the same format as the test mentioned above. However, if you can answer the question with an objective pronoun (me, him, her, them, etc.) then you should use whom.

Who/whom does she like?

She likes him. (You should use whom).

• The final rule about using who or whom involves prepositions. You should use whom if it is the object of the preposition that comes before it.

To whom are you speaking?

For whom are these flowers?

[divider top=”1″]

Count vs. Non-count Noun

A count noun is a noun that can be separated into specific things. This means that you could recognize them as distinct from a group.

The trees in the garden looked amber in the evening sun. (Each of the trees are separate, as in the garden, and the evening sun).

A non-count noun is something that is a mass of something, and is usually very difficult to separate into specific parts.

I went to the office to ask for some information about my town. (Information is given en masse and it is very difficult to distinguish one piece from another).

Unfortunately, there are nouns that can be used as both count and non-count nouns. You can determine whether the noun is count or non-count by looking at the context. Is the noun referring to a specific thing? Then it is probably count. Is it referring to an abstract idea or mass amount? Then it is probably non-count. Try to be aware of the nouns that can function as both.

I had many experiences when I was in France. (This noun refers to specific experiences that you had; therefore, it is count).

You will need experience if you wish to apply for this job. (This noun refers to the abstract concept of experience, which you are unable to separate. Therefore, it is non-count).

[divider top=”1″]

English Verb Tenses

Simple Tenses

• Simple Present:

The simple present expresses events or situations that exist always, usually, habitually; they exist now, have existed in the past, and probably will exist in the future.

It snows in Alaska. I watch television every day.

• Simple Past:

At one particular time in the past, this happened. It began and ended in the past.

It snowed yesterday. I watched television last night.

• Simple Future:

At one particular time in the future, this will happen.

It will snow tomorrow. I will watch television tonight.

The Progressive Tenses

(also known as the Continuous Tenses: Present Continuous, Past Continuous, and Future Continuous)

Form: be + -ing (present participle)

Meaning: The progressive tenses give the idea that an action is in progress during a particular time. With these tenses, an action begins before, is in progress during, and continues after another time or action.

• Present Progressive:

He is sleeping right now. (His sleep began in the past, is in progress at the present time, and will probably continue.)

• Past Progressive:

He was sleeping when I arrived. (He was still asleep. His sleep began before we arrive and it will be in progress at a particular time in the future. Probably his sleep will continue.

• Future Progressive:

He will be sleeping when we arrive. (The action of sleeping will begin before we arrive and it will be in progress at a particular time in the future. Probably his sleep will continue.)

The Perfect Tenses

Form: have + past participle

Meaning: The perfect progressive tenses give the idea that one event is in progress immediately before, up to, or until another time or event. The tenses are used to express the duration of the first event.

• Present Perfect Progressive:

I have been studying for two hours. (I started studying in the past. I could still be studying now.)

• Past Perfect Progressive:

I had been studying for two hours before my friend came. (Before another event in the past, I was studying. Now I am finished.)

• Future Perfect Progressive:

I will have been studying for two hours by the time you arrive. (Before another event in the future. The future event must occur for the action to be completed.)

Source: St. Martin’s Handbook, 5th and 6th editions

 

[divider top=”0″]

Apostrophe	Comma	Parentheses
Brackets	Dash	Quotation Marks
Capitalization	Hyphen	Semicolon
Colon	Italics

[divider top=”0″]

A comma indicates a pause that separates ideas or elements within a sentence. Commas are used:

1. Along with coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to separate two independent clauses. An independent clause is a group of words that could stand alone as a sentence. In the example below, both “John told me about his achievement” and “I congratulated him” are independent clauses that could stand alone as sentences.

John told me about his achievement, so I congratulated him.

2. To separate short to moderate length items in a series.

I bought apples, oranges, grapes, and cherries.

3. To separate two adjectives when the word “and” can be used between them.

He has long, silky hair.

4. To separate introductory phrases, prepositional phrases, or dependent clauses from the main clause of a sentence. It is also used after a transitional word like however, nonetheless, consequently, etc.

Once upon a time, I wrote an essay. However, I did not understand the prompt.

5. When someone is addressed directly in the middle of a thought or sentence.

I would appreciate, Ellen, if you could help me with my homework.

6. Enclose non-essential information that appears in the middle of a sentence, usually between the subject and verb (actor and action)–including adverbs and interrupting elements/commas.

It rained, as usual, while I was walking to the store.

7. In quotes when followed by more information or before a quote in a sentence.

“I think so,” said Mary. She walked away muttering, “I hope so.”

8. When writing dates with the month or the day first.

Monday, June 20, 2009 or June 20, 2009

9. Between a city and a state or country.

Chicago, Illinois or Paris, France

[divider top=”1″]

A semicolon is a punctuation mark that provides a pause in the sentence that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a colon. Semicolons are used in the following ways:

1. When there is no coordinating conjunction joining the clauses. The clause following the semicolon usually restates an idea in the first clause or expands on or presents a contrast to the first.

Matt was supposed to meet me at four; he arrived later that night.

2. When the second independent clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (therefore, meanwhile, however) or a transition (for example, in fact, even so).

We have seven trees in our backyard; however, one of our trees will need to be cut down.

3. Instead of commas when the series consists of long, complex phrases that may have commas within the phrases.

James has four children who live in Chicago, Illinois; Los Angeles, California; Madison, Wisconsin; and Richmond, Virginia.

[divider top=”1″]

A colon is a punctuation mark used after a word introducing a quotation, explanation, example, or series, which is preceded by an independent clause. Colons are used in the following ways:

1. To introduce an example, an explanation, or an appositive. An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that adds information to the sentence (usually to the word or phrase that comes before it).

Mary cooked me spaghetti Bolognese: pasta topped with a tomato-based meat sauce.

2. After an independent clause to introduce a series, list, or quotation.

The State of the Union address contained one surprising statement: “America is addicted to oil.”

[divider top=”1″]

A hyphen is a punctuation mark used to connect the parts of a compound word or between syllables of a word. Hyphens are used:

1. Between most compound adjectives that precede a noun.

John, a well-liked boss, implemented casual Fridays in the office.

2. Between the numbers of a fraction and for all compound numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine.

One-fourth of the class agreed to stay after class.

3. If there is a prefix before a proper noun.

He described her as un-American.

4. When the prefix ends with an a or an i, or if the root word ends with the same letter.

I felt ultra-ambitious after applying to graduate school.

5. With all words that begin with self (except for selfish and selfless) and all words with the prefix ex

She referred to her ex-husband as “self-centered.”

6. Using the prefix re, only to imply a different meaning than if the prefix were combined with the root word.

I would really like to re-cover the couch with new fabric.

Versus: I would really like to recover the couch from my sister.

7. When there is a compound adverb, not ending in ly, before a noun. However, if the compound adverb is after the noun, it does not need a hyphen.

We arrived at the restaurant for a much-needed meal. 

Versus: The meal was much needed.

8. When there are two or more adjectives, before a noun, which act as a single idea.

I saw a friendly-looking dog on the side of the street.

You can learn more about hyphenation at Grammar Book.

[divider top=”1″]

A dash is a more informal punctuation mark that can indicate a change in thought or add emphasis to a sentence (dashes place more emphasis than parentheses). Dashes are used:

1. To add emphasis, to indicate an interruption, or to show a sudden change of direction in place of punctuation marks like commas, semicolons, colons, and parentheses. However, dashes are more informal, so if a comma will work, than that would be more formal.

You are my friend–my best friend–and I hope you can come to my party.

2. For an appositive that already contains commas.

My sisters—Jane, Mary, and Sarah–joined me on the river cruise.

You can learn more about dashes at Grammar Book.

[divider top=”1″]

An apostrophe is used to indicate a possessive, a contraction, and sometimes a plural. Apostrophes are used:

1. To indicate that letters are missing from a word as a contraction (Note: Some professors may not approve of using contractions in formal papers).

I’m (I am) going to the circus, but Dave can’t (cannot) come.

2. To show a contraction when the spelling of the word has been changed through the contraction.

I won’t (will not) go to school today

3. To show a possessive for a singular word, or a plural word that does not end with an s, by adding an apostrophe followed by an s.

The cat’s toy is bright pink.

The men’s restroom is located on the right. (plural)

4. To show a possessive for a plural word that ends with an s by adding an apostrophe to the end of the word.

The girls’ hats flew off because of the strong winds.

5. To show the plural of lowercase letters, but not for numbers, symbols, or capitalized letters.

I was told to mind my p’s and q’s.

[divider top=”1″]

Capitalization is necessary:

1. When there is a proper noun.

I would like to visit Africa next summer.

2. For the first word of a quoted sentence.

He said, “My car disappeared yesterday.”

3. For a title when it comes before a name, or when addressed directly.

“Maybe you should explain yourself, Doctor,” said Chairman Banks.

4. For words like office, department, association, etc. when referring to a specific company, department, organization, etc. (proper nouns), but not when the words are used in a general way.

My office has a view of the Office of the Registrar building.

5. For reference to specific religious deities, books, and figures.

Our discussion revolved around the Bible.

6. For days of the week, months of the year, holidays, nationalities, languages, members of specific groups, periods and events, and trademarks.

I study the French Revolution on Mondays because I am a member of the Alliance Francais.

7. For the words of a title, except for prepositions and articles that are not the first word in the sentence (Note: Capitalization may not be necessary for APA format).

The Catcher in the Rye.

[divider top=”1″]

Brackets are used to indicate that a writer has added to or made changes to quoted text. Brackets are used in the following ways:

1. To add words to a quote so that it will fit into the flow of the sentence.

The defendant was charged with “murder [in the first degree] and kidnapping.”

2. With ellipses in between the brackets, to show that words have been omitted from a quotation.

Mr. Roberts argued that “All people should be treated as equals [. . .]and their rights should be respected.”

3. With the word sic to show misspellings or typos in a quote, which are the result of the quoted person, and not the writer.

“I feel that speling [sic] is a very important part of writing.”

4. When a parenthetical statement includes another parenthetical statement, to enclose the parenthesis within the parenthesis.

The store sells a variety of electronic items (televisions, digital versatile disc [DVD] players, cameras, etc.).

[divider top=”1″]

Quotation marks are used to enclose direct quotations. End of sentence punctuation like commas, periods, exclamation marks, and quotation marks are placed inside the quotation marks. Colons and semicolons are placed outside the quotation marks. Quotation marks:

1. Indicate a direct quote (but are not used for an indirect or block quote).

The journalist began his report by stating that, “President Obama spoke on healthcare reform yesterday.”

2. Indicate “novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word” (Purdue OWL).

His “caring” attitude was evident when he ignored the children’s requests.

3. Are used for titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.

“On the Quai at Smyrna,” by Ernest Hemingway.

Note: If there is a quote within the quote you are using, you should use single quotation marks.

Mr. Banks wrote, “The man stopped me in the street and asked, ‘Where am I?’.”

[divider top=”1″]

Italics can sometimes be used interchangeably with underlining, but most academics are moving toward using italics. Italics are used:

1. When referring to titles of books, magazines, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays, operas, musical albums, works of art, web sites, and individual planes, trains, and ships.

I went to see Hamlet when I was in London.

2. For words in another language.

We will try to incorporate the spirit of carpe diem into our philosophy.

3. When adding emphasis to a word or when referring to a word.

The word patriotism came up many times during the speech.

Sources: St. Martin’s Handbook, 5th and 6th editions and http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/566/01/