| Apostrophe | Comma | Parentheses |
| Brackets | Dash | Quotation Marks |
| Capitalization | Hyphen | Semicolon |
| Colon | Italics |
A comma indicates a pause that separates ideas or elements within a sentence. Commas are used:
1. Along with coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to separate two independent clauses. An independent clause is a group of words that could stand alone as a sentence. In the example below, both “John told me about his achievement” and “I congratulated him” are independent clauses that could stand alone as sentences.
John told me about his achievement, so I congratulated him.
2. To separate short to moderate length items in a series.
I bought apples, oranges, grapes, and cherries.
3. To separate two adjectives when the word “and” can be used between them.
He has long, silky hair.
4. To separate introductory phrases, prepositional phrases, or dependent clauses from the main clause of a sentence. It is also used after a transitional word like however, nonetheless, consequently, etc.
Once upon a time, I wrote an essay. However, I did not understand the prompt.
5. When someone is addressed directly in the middle of a thought or sentence.
I would appreciate, Ellen, if you could help me with my homework.
6. Enclose non-essential information that appears in the middle of a sentence, usually between the subject and verb (actor and action)–including adverbs and interrupting elements/commas.
It rained, as usual, while I was walking to the store.
7. In quotes when followed by more information or before a quote in a sentence.
“I think so,” said Mary. She walked away muttering, “I hope so.”
8. When writing dates with the month or the day first.
Monday, June 20, 2009 or June 20, 2009
9. Between a city and a state or country.
Chicago, Illinois or Paris, France
[divider top=”1″]A semicolon is a punctuation mark that provides a pause in the sentence that is longer than a comma, but shorter than a colon. Semicolons are used in the following ways:
1. When there is no coordinating conjunction joining the clauses. The clause following the semicolon usually restates an idea in the first clause or expands on or presents a contrast to the first.
Matt was supposed to meet me at four; he arrived later that night.
2. When the second independent clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (therefore, meanwhile, however) or a transition (for example, in fact, even so).
We have seven trees in our backyard; however, one of our trees will need to be cut down.
3. Instead of commas when the series consists of long, complex phrases that may have commas within the phrases.
James has four children who live in Chicago, Illinois; Los Angeles, California; Madison, Wisconsin; and Richmond, Virginia.
[divider top=”1″]A colon is a punctuation mark used after a word introducing a quotation, explanation, example, or series, which is preceded by an independent clause. Colons are used in the following ways:
1. To introduce an example, an explanation, or an appositive. An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that adds information to the sentence (usually to the word or phrase that comes before it).
Mary cooked me spaghetti Bolognese: pasta topped with a tomato-based meat sauce.
2. After an independent clause to introduce a series, list, or quotation.
The State of the Union address contained one surprising statement: “America is addicted to oil.”
[divider top=”1″]A hyphen is a punctuation mark used to connect the parts of a compound word or between syllables of a word. Hyphens are used:
1. Between most compound adjectives that precede a noun.
John, a well-liked boss, implemented casual Fridays in the office.
2. Between the numbers of a fraction and for all compound numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine.
One-fourth of the class agreed to stay after class.
3. If there is a prefix before a proper noun.
He described her as un-American.
4. When the prefix ends with an a or an i, or if the root word ends with the same letter.
I felt ultra-ambitious after applying to graduate school.
5. With all words that begin with self (except for selfish and selfless) and all words with the prefix ex
She referred to her ex-husband as “self-centered.”
6. Using the prefix re, only to imply a different meaning than if the prefix were combined with the root word.
I would really like to re-cover the couch with new fabric.
Versus: I would really like to recover the couch from my sister.
7. When there is a compound adverb, not ending in ly, before a noun. However, if the compound adverb is after the noun, it does not need a hyphen.
We arrived at the restaurant for a much-needed meal.
Versus: The meal was much needed.
8. When there are two or more adjectives, before a noun, which act as a single idea.
I saw a friendly-looking dog on the side of the street.
You can learn more about hyphenation at Grammar Book.
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A dash is a more informal punctuation mark that can indicate a change in thought or add emphasis to a sentence (dashes place more emphasis than parentheses). Dashes are used:
1. To add emphasis, to indicate an interruption, or to show a sudden change of direction in place of punctuation marks like commas, semicolons, colons, and parentheses. However, dashes are more informal, so if a comma will work, than that would be more formal.
You are my friend–my best friend–and I hope you can come to my party.
2. For an appositive that already contains commas.
My sisters—Jane, Mary, and Sarah–joined me on the river cruise.
You can learn more about dashes at Grammar Book.
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An apostrophe is used to indicate a possessive, a contraction, and sometimes a plural. Apostrophes are used:
1. To indicate that letters are missing from a word as a contraction (Note: Some professors may not approve of using contractions in formal papers).
I’m (I am) going to the circus, but Dave can’t (cannot) come.
2. To show a contraction when the spelling of the word has been changed through the contraction.
I won’t (will not) go to school today
3. To show a possessive for a singular word, or a plural word that does not end with an s, by adding an apostrophe followed by an s.
The cat’s toy is bright pink.
The men’s restroom is located on the right. (plural)
4. To show a possessive for a plural word that ends with an s by adding an apostrophe to the end of the word.
The girls’ hats flew off because of the strong winds.
5. To show the plural of lowercase letters, but not for numbers, symbols, or capitalized letters.
I was told to mind my p’s and q’s.
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Capitalization is necessary:
1. When there is a proper noun.
I would like to visit Africa next summer.
2. For the first word of a quoted sentence.
He said, “My car disappeared yesterday.”
3. For a title when it comes before a name, or when addressed directly.
“Maybe you should explain yourself, Doctor,” said Chairman Banks.
4. For words like office, department, association, etc. when referring to a specific company, department, organization, etc. (proper nouns), but not when the words are used in a general way.
My office has a view of the Office of the Registrar building.
5. For reference to specific religious deities, books, and figures.
Our discussion revolved around the Bible.
6. For days of the week, months of the year, holidays, nationalities, languages, members of specific groups, periods and events, and trademarks.
I study the French Revolution on Mondays because I am a member of the Alliance Francais.
7. For the words of a title, except for prepositions and articles that are not the first word in the sentence (Note: Capitalization may not be necessary for APA format).
The Catcher in the Rye.
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Brackets are used to indicate that a writer has added to or made changes to quoted text. Brackets are used in the following ways:
1. To add words to a quote so that it will fit into the flow of the sentence.
The defendant was charged with “murder [in the first degree] and kidnapping.”
2. With ellipses in between the brackets, to show that words have been omitted from a quotation.
Mr. Roberts argued that “All people should be treated as equals [. . .]and their rights should be respected.”
3. With the word sic to show misspellings or typos in a quote, which are the result of the quoted person, and not the writer.
“I feel that speling [sic] is a very important part of writing.”
4. When a parenthetical statement includes another parenthetical statement, to enclose the parenthesis within the parenthesis.
The store sells a variety of electronic items (televisions, digital versatile disc [DVD] players, cameras, etc.).
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Quotation marks are used to enclose direct quotations. End of sentence punctuation like commas, periods, exclamation marks, and quotation marks are placed inside the quotation marks. Colons and semicolons are placed outside the quotation marks. Quotation marks:
1. Indicate a direct quote (but are not used for an indirect or block quote).
The journalist began his report by stating that, “President Obama spoke on healthcare reform yesterday.”
2. Indicate “novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word” (Purdue OWL).
His “caring” attitude was evident when he ignored the children’s requests.
3. Are used for titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.
“On the Quai at Smyrna,” by Ernest Hemingway.
Note: If there is a quote within the quote you are using, you should use single quotation marks.
Mr. Banks wrote, “The man stopped me in the street and asked, ‘Where am I?’.”
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Italics can sometimes be used interchangeably with underlining, but most academics are moving toward using italics. Italics are used:
1. When referring to titles of books, magazines, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays, operas, musical albums, works of art, web sites, and individual planes, trains, and ships.
I went to see Hamlet when I was in London.
2. For words in another language.
We will try to incorporate the spirit of carpe diem into our philosophy.
3. When adding emphasis to a word or when referring to a word.
The word patriotism came up many times during the speech.
Sources: St. Martin’s Handbook, 5th and 6th editions and http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/566/01/
